From: Teaching Vocabulary to =
Adolescents=20
to Improve Comprehension <=
FONT=20
size=3D2 face=3DVerdana,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif>Mary E. =
Curtis Providing=20
vocabulary instruction is one of the most significant ways in =
which=20
teachers can improve students=92 reading and listening =
comprehension. It can=20
also be one of the most challenging things for teachers to do =
well. This=20
article describes a 16-week intervention in which the =
comprehension of=20
middle and high school students reading below grade level was =
improved=20
significantly by instruction that developed their vocabularies =
through=20
listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Guiding principles for =
the=20
intervention are discussed and sample activities are=20
provided. Introduction | Overview=20
of the Intervention | C=
ourse=20
Structure | Sam=
ple=20
Activities | Ass=
essment=20
Tools | =
Summary=20
and Conclusions | References Introduction The =
importance of=20
vocabulary to reading achievement -- and more specifically to reading=20
comprehension -- has long been established (see, e.g., =
Davis,=20
1944; Thorndike,=20
1917). Knowledge of word meanings and the ability to access that =
knowledge=20
efficiently are recognized as important factors in reading and listening =
comprehension, especially as students progress to middle school and =
beyond (=
Chall,=20
1983). Although =
growth in=20
vocabulary knowledge occurs rapidly and almost effortlessly for some =
children,=20
the rate at which word meanings are acquired can vary greatly. Many =
children=20
with reading problems have poor vocabularies, and the gap between the =
vocabulary=20
they need and the one they have widens over time (Biemiller,=20
1999). In this =
article we=20
describe an intervention we developed for adolescents who lack the =
vocabulary=20
knowledge they need to comprehend materials written at their grade =
level. The=20
intervention is one of a set of four 16-week courses that make up =
Reading Is=20
FAME (Curtis=20
& Longo, 1997), a remedial reading curriculum designed for the =
students=20
and teachers at Girls and Boys Town in Boys Town, Nebraska, USA. On =
average,=20
students at this residential and educational facility are 15 years old =
on their=20
arrival, and their length of stay is 18 to 22 months. They are sent to =
Girls and=20
Boys Town because of factors such as chronic neglect and abuse, illegal =
and=20
antisocial behaviors, and academic failure. The =
theoretical=20
framework for the FAME curriculum is Chall=92s (1983) stages of =
reading=20
development. The first course -- for students reading below the =
fourth-grade=20
level -- teaches the relationships among the most common letter =
combinations and=20
sounds. The goal of the second course, which is intended for students =
reading=20
between fourth- and sixth-grade levels, is to promote fluency in =
recognizing=20
words and their meanings. The third course (the one we focus on in this =
article)=20
seeks to build up the vocabulary knowledge of students reading between =
sixth-=20
and eighth-grade levels. In the fourth course -- for students reading =
above=20
eighth-grade level -- emphasis is on improving integration of text =
information=20
via both reading and writing (Curtis=20
& Longo, 1999). Students are placed in a particular course in =
the=20
sequence based on an initial assessment of their reading =
achievement. More than 75 =
replications of the FAME courses have occurred in various sites=20
throughout the United States. On average, analyses of the standardized =
reading=20
test scores for students who have participated in the curriculum =
indicate that=20
they gain nearly a year in reading achievement for each course =
taken. Overview of the =
Vocabulary=20
Intervention We =
incorporated elements=20
into the vocabulary intervention based on what research told us about =
effective=20
vocabulary instruction. So, in this sense, our intention from the outset =
was=20
derivative, and at least some of the instructional activities used in =
the=20
FAME course will be familiar to readers. In another sense, =
however, two=20
features make our approach different from typical classroom vocabulary=20
instruction. First, even though our goal is to improve students=92 =
reading=20
comprehension, all of the instructional time in our intervention is =
focused on=20
developing students=92 vocabularies. Second, we use a word list as the =
base for=20
our instruction, introducing each word first in isolation before =
presenting it=20
in context. The reasoning behind these features of the intervention is =
described=20
below. Focusing on=20
vocabulary learning. In our experience, much of the failure of =
remedial=20
reading instruction results from doing too much rather than too little. =
In=20
designing the FAME vocabulary intervention, we wanted to focus on =
the=20
knowledge and skills most needed by our students to advance their=20
understanding. Weak =
vocabularies were=20
causing our students=92 comprehension to suffer, and difficulties in =
comprehension=20
were causing their vocabularies to remain weak (Chall, 1983). But, in =
order to=20
influence their comprehension, our students were going to need at least =
10 to 15=20
encounters with each word=92s meaning (B=
eck,=20
McKeown, & Omanson, 1987). So, we decided to devote all of the=20
instructional time available -- 45 minutes a day, 5 days a week, for 16 =
weeks --=20
to direct teaching of vocabulary and its application in =
context. Moving =
from=20
isolation to context. We knew that to be effective, vocabulary =
learning=20
must occur in context (Sternberg,=20
1987). In traditional vocabulary instruction, the lesson usually =
begins with=20
a story or article that students read (the context), and words are =
selected for=20
further discussion (in isolation). We wanted to design an intervention =
in which=20
students would be the ones to create the contexts in which they learned =
word=20
meanings. So, in our course, teachers and students begin with a =
discussion of a=20
set of words and their meanings (in isolation), after which students =
complete=20
activities that require them to apply knowledge about the word meanings =
(the=20
context). The emphasis is always on helping students to make inferences =
about=20
contexts in which word meanings fit, rather than asking them to make =
inferences=20
about word meanings from contexts they are given. Selecting =
Words for=20
Instruction Knowledge of =
word=20
meanings is rarely (if ever) an all or nothing matter, especially for=20
adolescents who have experienced difficulties in learning to read. =
Because of=20
gaps in background knowledge, these students tend to recall very little =
from=20
typical instructional experiences designed to acquaint them with=20
grade-appropriate word meanings. And in cases where they are already =
familiar=20
with a word=92s meaning, their knowledge is frequently based on their =
aural=20
experiences rather than on any encounters they might have had with the =
word in=20
print. A framework =
we have=20
found useful in our thinking about this is D=
ale=92s=20
(1965) =93stages of word knowledge.=94 According to Dale, four =
stages of=20
comprehension are involved in word knowledge: words whose meanings are =
known=20
(Stage 4); words whose meanings are recognized in some contexts but not =
others=20
(Stage 3); words that have been seen or heard, but whose meanings are =
not known=20
(Stage 2); and finally, words that have never been heard or seen before =
(Stage=20
1). A typical unit in our vocabulary intervention consists of 10 words, =
about=20
half of which we believe students will likely have some familiarity with =
(Stage=20
3) and about half of which we think will be new (Stages 1-2). Figure 1 =
shows a=20
sample 10-word list from the FAME course. Figure =
1
------=_NextPart_001_0007_01CC9D39.8E584CF0--
------=_NextPart_000_0000_01CC9D39.8E584CF0
Content-Type: image/gif
Content-Transfer-Encoding: base64
Content-Location: http://www.readingonline.org/_images/nav_top.gif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------=_NextPart_000_0000_01CC9D39.8E584CF0
Content-Type: image/gif
Content-Transfer-Encoding: base64
Content-Location: http://www.readingonline.org/_images/nav_aboutus.gif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------=_NextPart_000_0000_01CC9D39.8E584CF0
Content-Type: image/gif
Content-Transfer-Encoding: base64
Content-Location: http://www.readingonline.org/_images/nav_keyword.gif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------=_NextPart_000_0000_01CC9D39.8E584CF0
Content-Type: image/gif
Content-Transfer-Encoding: base64
Content-Location: http://www.readingonline.org/_images/nav_indexes.gif
R0lGODlhowAcAPcAAG50pf2DMwBTpQBJkUBjZ7u91bTV+VB4ea3K7pyjykRUdwBWrWB6Z4Cbe/ij
aSBqpp+aSgBEiUpdgAA4cZ+iWgAtWUBreQBHjZS46KXG7SBXgKXL9QBNmgAyZABateL6/7+0UVBn
WEByhhJEdgBixYCGUQA9es3r/wBevQBQof/Utr+3VQBgwMHk/2B0XL+vRr+5WQA/fZ+mYtru/wBC
hY+bYl5mnLra/gBBggBOnL+wSMXF2LLR9AA0aJWZvbDK7YmVvOHx/8Le/lFchwBKlbrT88++S6nJ
7e/OO0BdXAA6de/+/5mZu3J3pgBcucTZ87vi/9/GRq+oTe/PPFlsj/+OQY+WWY+QTqzW/+/QP9/F
QwBIj/6kaM+6Ql1uj8Te+wBmzCBUeXR4p3CNdQBYsP3///n//8+9R7+xSrfR7Z+eUiBMaABUqGCF
fc+7Rf+UTpucvXB2p3B1pv9mAEBfYTBWZv/XOABjxgBkyP///wBmywBlygBdugBkyQBhwgBkxwBf
vgBVqgBZsgBeuwBgvwBQnwBWqwBctwA8dwBAf52dvQBiwwBMlwBas9/DP7+yS4CJWBA/Zt/HSAAw
X4+jc8DA1VCFlICIVr+wR+T7/4+TVABUp//DnK3c/3CUhFVpjbPP8by5zJG36Fhrjx9Nj7+4VzBz
n4CegFBxbMTS+t3t/2homxBjr4+r2DBQWoqNqAVMlYCRZ/Ly9q/N7BBeo9Ps/2aQwqOjwWVwo5/B
7Gl7olRnhaOp0VZliNPb8VBtZbPe/7jI7r+yTP+vfICUbiBfjz9pn0CBpayzwTB6rdjo+wBYr93p
/42z5j1RdP+0foJ/p8nJ25Olz63P9Of+/wBEh6Wz1ai01ai22q+41bS71cDZ6aDB7K+wXJfC7Mzg
+GBvUkB+n1drkFtnkun7/+r+/2CHgR9WnFB+h0B2j0B5lvD+/1yIu2B+b5a66Mzn/2BwU5+pabDY
/3CJbrXZ/xBTkBdWmpnB7KjG7Z/F7AlZrrfT9LO1zBBOgxVPj8Dg/yH5BAAAAAAALAAAAACjABwA
AAj/AMEIHEiwoMGDCBMqXMiwocOHECNKnEixosWLGDMi1KNnTx88f+6IHPkHT589HDWqXMmyJcGO
fe74IYQCBZ+bfAahAMSCxB+ULoMKHdpQTx8bAJIqVSpnnD0Pg/zc2UO0qlWie+6IycO1q1dk/gQs
cOLnj56raNNm7ONnq6xoO+LK3fHK2JYcY/30Oau2r1+HeAg1ybNjFZPDiJlAk8YuQqEFKKYm5Jhy
8h48JoH+3VzxD4rBlW557RqqFRRbF1J4YIGH78tjyUTi0VxQzyk74QhJ7cO5t8Q7g0ArGs2VHy4g
umIQMTSIBNWCe+zA0MlCssE9t9UJOgTojmvf4BXe/+EjPI+KYVyqcDHji1cCBRMiqNZrEI+dUgsW
eEDhh4T/OybhsUgDdoiQgwCCoPBfSR9h5iAeIpEA4EchiXRSeESNN1gBw3HyRgBzBLAEM6kE00sH
iXBABiF4GESCHSvkkMMK3Uhy3wNOAEKJHVkYYYcFEVhgoySmOPEADA2wYAkMlgDiSRb3scKHjnbY
Ec+Ui7SGoVAalsFhHh6CGEAmQagygxeTIEIEZH8Y5IcdIGxxQZVjEGOHDAKkA2MbVRIwwhRGHJBF
FGKtYMcDUWRBi54yjHGnAObciU4bhgjS3XNbtjReHGZoM5wKz6TnAJkz1OJFBUoMEMggdxjEApwR
0P9gxxkXRGCHMBfUYEcxF6hhRxIh2IFKNVbYoQERxdgxhR3tDKBrPRecocUFsdgxzwBbECGAB35g
mulKm66TDRx5KPOFEP/cUAQoX5xw6gRbsMFHqwW9CgINMdiBRiIm2KFDDI/YgS8kv5ZgRxeYOGIH
ATQMQIEdbphgAhr66oCEHYiEsawaYUSQgyAs8PYtS+PJQc41cJTxxA8/IHBEBrkY4G4F8MpLL0H2
4quvCUrY8YISOmCMCMFJGAxBCUivkcgFWtiBRCQ9vGAHJJcgPUEMYUjhNA5rAtLiyODyAcAH1vig
Msv44JMBNwa0QAXN8c7rKpw664BIz5hMcIUda0z/4CsdwYIzySQdTJBIO3b4CkEHe6/RweNX04CD
JgtfIIDcYKsEXBwfYOPDEt8UsQ8PPEyzgQFQvF0z5jjTnS8aEvurBB0+u1AlHZEggUQI4FyhRD9T
aBGD1K4kcXDRLpjAAAUWdGHHCNUU4gEJmavkmQ27DJFAOQhg4A4GGIjSzAbAjAK3zW6uUMMFNDxi
BQ7tWxGDCZTbIcULdUxQh8JIQILDASA4AA3o8IISTMAFF3PEL2hwgCg4jQEmoMHH/PCd6lUkMPqA
xQgSQI13/CNd9JAHFrDQCXGcj3UDWYQHBECEC7jwhS6shuTmpwQlICIG8zNBIiLAiBxw4AI4mF8M
/4IoMRxcIAcpyAH7YiAfDyyighacCFtWSAogbCMNaZiFyzKQj3t44xOTSNWqbjaQ8SxDAIVIoxoL
IaMcEGELMqTBBQZAhAFcYAuMSIEABODGOhKhji4cAAcEEAgBMEJOjDAECqNIkT2QAAULOMcQnCGB
SlrSkgroQQwYwab6+GEQHhCEKEcpSjKQYQGbSEEaCbmAQhKSDI1oxCkXYIhaunITCxBEKA2xx7yI
jJEV0QMe/OCEQHCgGkroQQcqwExmTqIHSnDMir5GkMuQgAXYzKY2acIHDzTCA06oCR+ccAgnTIkQ
gEhnOlEwCHIegg87QQE5w+kHLQEzmFlhgQcCoX1EHPCshjW8IQ/ZcAj6XMcjD0ooZu7gHwlhJiQL
UihIGCqhO1RIQj+B4j0j0pE7sMAJC+BjHQdAUjpyIAWB8MClNspSh2TFDyjwwCkDQdOa5pI7JNhL
S3eqkI78gQR+AAQ7B0FUnaBAN3c4iUZ5ylSOILRCJGEQSpbK1OoFBAA7
------=_NextPart_000_0000_01CC9D39.8E584CF0
Content-Type: image/gif
Content-Transfer-Encoding: base64
Content-Location: http://www.readingonline.org/_images/nav_email_article.gif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------=_NextPart_000_0000_01CC9D39.8E584CF0
Content-Type: image/gif
Content-Transfer-Encoding: base64
Content-Location: http://www.readingonline.org/_images/nav_home.gif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------=_NextPart_000_0000_01CC9D39.8E584CF0
Content-Type: image/gif
Content-Transfer-Encoding: base64
Content-Location: http://www.readingonline.org/_images/nav_bottom.gif
R0lGODlhowAwALMAAABmzP///0CM2RBwz9Dj9uDs+ZC86XCp4mCg36DG7DCD1rDQ71CW3ICz5gAA
AAAAACH5BAAAAAAALAAAAACjADAAAASdEMhJq7046827/2AojmRpnmiqrmzrvnAsz3Rt33iu73zv
/8CgcEgsGo/IpHLJbDqf0Kh0Sq1ar9isdsvter/gsHhMLpvP6LR6zW673/C4fE6v2+8mAV6p3yMP
fkgGgUcEhEUDAYdECIqLQgSOjz8CAZKTPAORl5g6CZacnTcGoKGiMwOfpac3CAWllqwzCgevsLGy
KwoCDA0LtregEQA7
------=_NextPart_000_0000_01CC9D39.8E584CF0
Content-Type: text/css;
charset="iso-8859-1"
Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable
Content-Location: http://www.readingonline.org/_css/default.css
TD {
FONT-FAMILY: Arial; COLOR: #000000; FONT-SIZE: 12px
}
.topColorStrip {
BACKGROUND-IMAGE: url(../_images/top_color.gif); BACKGROUND-COLOR: =
#ffffff; BACKGROUND-REPEAT: repeat; BACKGROUND-POSITION: left top; =
HEIGHT: 3px
}
.topWhiteStrip {
BACKGROUND-COLOR: #ffffff; HEIGHT: 1px
}
.topLogoStrip {
BACKGROUND-IMAGE: url(../_images/top_background.gif); BACKGROUND-COLOR: =
#0066cc; BACKGROUND-REPEAT: repeat; BACKGROUND-POSITION: left top
}
.navSeparator {
BACKGROUND-IMAGE: url(../_images/nav_separator.gif); BACKGROUND-COLOR: =
#0066cc; BACKGROUND-REPEAT: no-repeat; BACKGROUND-POSITION: left top; =
HEIGHT: 2px
}
------=_NextPart_000_0000_01CC9D39.8E584CF0
Content-Type: application/octet-stream
Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable
Content-Location: http://www.readingonline.org/js/emagination_popup.js
/*
Copyright (C) 2000-2001 e.magination network, llc. All Rights =
Reserved.
Feel free to reuse or modify this code,
provided this header remains in tact.
http://www.emagination.com
jibba jabba strikes again.
=20
5/31/2001 positioning for smaller resolutions fixed
5/11/2001 AOL issue
*/
/*
features available:
channelmode
directories
fullscreen
location
menubar
resizable
scrollbars
status
titlebar
toolbar
*/
function openNewWindow(URL, windowName, intWidth, intHeight, =
featuresRequested) {
var _isNS =3D (navigator.appName=3D=3D"Netscape");
var _isIE =3D (navigator.appName=3D=3D"Microsoft Internet Explorer");
//AOL detection (bug: returns false if used in first AOL browser =
window.)
var _isAOL =3D (navigator.userAgent.indexOf("AOL ") >=3D 0);
//default values
if (!featuresRequested) featuresRequested =3D '';
=09
//declare
var aryFeatureName =3D new Array(
'channelmode',
'directories',
'fullscreen',
'location',
'menubar',
'resizable',
'scrollbars',
'status',
'titlebar',
'toolbar'
);
var aryFeature =3D new Array();
=09
//default all features to 0 (no)
for (var i in aryFeatureName) {
aryFeature[aryFeatureName[i]] =3D 0;
}
//get array of features requested
var aryFeaturesRequested =3D featuresRequested.split(',');
//set any features requested to 1 (yes)
for (var i in aryFeaturesRequested) {
if (aryFeature[aryFeaturesRequested[i].replace(/ /g,'')] =3D=3D 0) =
{//'no' means key exists
aryFeature[aryFeaturesRequested[i].replace(/ /g,'')] =3D 1;
}
}
//find browser dimensions
var offsetWidth, offsetHeight;
if (_isNS) {//ns
offsetWidth =3D window.offsetWidth;
offsetHeight =3D window.offsetHeight;
}
else if (_isIE) {//ie
//need to account for all the bars and estimate size.
offsetWidth =3D document.body.offsetWidth;
offsetHeight =3D document.body.offsetHeight+180;
}
//determine width and height if undefined
if (!intWidth) intWidth=3DoffsetWidth;
if (!intHeight) intHeight=3DoffsetHeight;
//construct feature string
var strPopUpFeatures =3D '';
=09
var centerLeft =3D Math.ceil((screen.availWidth-intWidth-20)/2);
var centerTop =3D Math.ceil((screen.availHeight-intHeight-20)/2);
centerLeft =3D Math.max(0, centerLeft);
centerTop =3D Math.max(0, centerTop);
if (!_isAOL) {//AOL bug, document is moved rather than window
strPopUpFeatures +=3D 'left=3D' + centerLeft + ',';
strPopUpFeatures +=3D 'top=3D' + centerTop + ',';
}
=09
if (intWidth) strPopUpFeatures +=3D 'width=3D' + intWidth + ',';
if (intHeight) strPopUpFeatures +=3D 'height=3D' + intHeight + ',';
for (var strFeature in aryFeature) {
strPopUpFeatures +=3D strFeature + '=3D' + aryFeature[strFeature] + =
',';
}
//remove last comma
strPopUpFeatures =3D strPopUpFeatures.replace(/\,$/,'');
//open pop-up login
var objWindow =3D window.open(URL, windowName, strPopUpFeatures);
=09
with (objWindow) { =20
//fix AOL bug: document actually moves right/down in the window, so =
move back.
if (_isAOL) {
moveTo(0,0);
}
//give focus to pop-up
focus();
=09
//resize for chromeless browser window
if (aryFeature['fullscreen'] =3D=3D 1) {
resizeTo(intWidth, intHeight);
moveTo(centerLeft, centerTop);
}
}//with
return objWindow;
}//openNewWindow
------=_NextPart_000_0000_01CC9D39.8E584CF0
Content-Type: application/octet-stream
Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable
Content-Location: http://www.readingonline.org/_structure/nav.asp?Article=%2Farticles%2Fcurtis%2Findex%2Ehtml
------=_NextPart_000_0000_01CC9D39.8E584CF0
Content-Type: text/html;
charset="iso-8859-1"
Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable
Content-Location: http://www.readingonline.org/articles/curtis/index.html
This =
article is=20
part of the November 2001 themed issue on struggling readers. For =
more=20
about the contents of this issue, visit the From the Editors =
feature.
Ann Marie=20
Longo
Abstract=20
Related Posting =
from the=20
Archives=20
A Word=20
List for a Unit from the Reading Is FAME Vocabulary Intervention =
(Curtis=20
& Longo, 1997)
astound
to fill =
with=20
surprise or sudden wonder
confine
to keep =
or hold=20
in
elusive
hard to =
describe=20
or understand
extinguish
to put =
out, do=20
away with
longevity
a long =
duration=20
of life
persistent
refusing to give=20
up or let go
remote
far off =
in place=20
or time
spectacular
making =
a very=20
unusual or impressive sight or display
taunt
to =
insult or=20
ridicule, mock
vital
having =
to do with=20
or necessary for =
life
In the case = of some of=20 the Stage 1 and 2 words, we expect that students will start out with = some=20 relevant conceptual knowledge (for example, for the word taunt); = for=20 others, we know that such knowledge might be lacking (e.g., for = elusive).=20 For Stage 3 words, students=92 prior knowledge will be connected to = particular=20 situations (e.g., fire extinguisher or remote control), = and might=20 be intertwined with similar words (e.g., persistent versus=20 insistent).
In choosing = words for=20 inclusion in the FAME vocabulary intervention, we applied two = additional=20 criteria. First, since our students were adolescents comprehending about = 2 to 3=20 years below their grade level in school, we looked for words found in = reading=20 materials at the sixth- to eighth-grade levels. Second, we selected = words that=20 we thought would be likely to disrupt a student=92s comprehension if = their=20 meanings were not known. Two sources we used in assembling our lists = were The=20 Educator=92s Word Frequency Guide (Z= eno,=20 Ivens, Millard, & Duvvuri, 1995) and The Living Word = Vocabulary=20 (D= ale=20 & O=92Rourke, 1981).
One = condition that we=20 did not use for word selection was semantic category. Research shows = that=20 grouping words thematically is not necessary if vocabulary instruction = is varied=20 and rich (see = Stahl,=20 1999, for a summary of this work). Since we wanted our students to = create=20 their own connections among words, we felt that they might be hindered = in that=20 process if we used words whose relationships were already built = in.
Course Structure and=20 Activities
Five = principles guide=20 teachers=92 and students=92 movement through each week of the=20 intervention:
We explain = each of these=20 principles in further detail in what follows, and provide illustrations = of each=20 from one of the units in the curriculum.
Introduce and=20 activate word meanings. The initial goal for every vocabulary = unit is=20 the same: to promote word knowledge and skills with explicit = instruction. Each=20 word and its meaning are introduced, followed by a discussion of the = contexts in=20 which the word and meaning could be applied. So, for example, in the = case of=20 persistent, the teacher might say,
A = persistent=20 person is someone who hangs in there despite difficulties. We often = hear or=20 read about people like this -- people who overcame a bunch of = obstacles to=20 succeed. Like an athlete who was persistent even though he or she had = injuries=20 -- they refused to give up. Can anyone think of someone they know or = have=20 heard about who was persistent, who refused to give up?
We had at = least one=20 word in an earlier unit that is related to persistence -- can anybody = think of=20 one? The one I thought of was endurance. What connections do = you see=20 between endurance and persistence?
Could = persistence ever=20 be a negative thing? Can anybody think of a situation when someone=92s = refusal=20 to give up or let go might be harmful?
Notice that = when=20 introducing the word the teacher always directs the focus to helping = students=20 come up with contexts in which the word meaning can be applied. As = emphasized=20 earlier, this approach is used instead of one which asks students to = infer=20 something about the meaning of the word from contexts the teacher=20 supplies.
Once the = words and=20 meanings for the week are introduced and discussed, students begin to = make=20 further connections between the new information and their prior = knowledge. This=20 is accomplished through an exercise called the com= pletion=20 activity, in which students work individually or in small groups to = complete=20 sentences related to the new words=92 meanings. Subsequent discussion of = answers=20 to the completion activity provide students with an opportunity to = listen to and=20 learn from one another. It also gives teachers a chance to further = clarify word=20 meanings. The completion activity also establishes an understanding -- = from the=20 outset -- that vocabulary learning is much less about coming up with a = single=20 =93correct=94 answer than it is about making connections to what is = already=20 known.
Present words in a=20 variety of contexts. Since we begin with a set of isolated = words, we=20 know that we need to provide students with opportunities to use them in = a=20 variety of contexts and to receive feedback about their success in doing = so. One=20 of the ways in which we accomplish this is via cloze,=20 or fill-in-the-blank, sentences. Students are instructed to use each = word=20 only once in this activity, which initially presents them with much = difficulty.=20 This is especially true when more than one word could fit into a = sentence frame.=20 Through teacher modeling and small-group discussion, however, students = quickly=20 figure out the best ways to fill in the blanks. The cloze format also = provides=20 teachers and students with an opportunity to discuss inflectional = endings (e.g.,=20 -ed, -er, -s).
In addition = to the=20 sentence cloze task, each unit includes a paragraph=20 cloze activity, which we have found most teens with reading = difficulties=20 view as even more of a challenge than the sentence task. Their = difficulty in=20 recognizing clues about meaning in a text accounts for why their efforts = to use=20 context to figure out the meanings of unknown words has so little = payoff. In=20 working on the paragraph fill-ins, teachers show students how to = complete the=20 activity in stages, and model for them the kinds of decisions that = skilled=20 readers make as they process text. For example, to introduce the task, = teachers=20 first read the whole paragraph, showing students how to get an overall = sense of=20 the topic. Then, using a think-aloud procedure, teachers work through = the=20 blanks, drawing attention to the context clues that help narrow the = possible=20 choices. At this stage, for example, a teacher might comment, =93Looking = at the=20 first sentence, it seems to me that winds could be either = spectacular or=20 persistent. In this sentence, though, it describes the winds as = refusing=20 to let up, so this tips me off that persistent would probably be = the=20 better choice.=94 Teachers also show how to skip blanks that are = difficult to fill=20 the first time through, cross out words as they are used, and pencil in=20 possibilities when they aren=92t sure which choice is best.
Over the = next few weeks=20 in the course, the whole class works through the paragraph fill-in = exercise=20 together, with the teacher acting as a scribe and monitor (e.g., =93Is = that the=20 only word that fits?=94 =93How do we know that=92s a good choice?=94). = Students then=20 work in small groups or pairs, following the same process. Finally, = students=20 complete the activity on their own, and class time is spent discussing = and=20 defending choices.
Students = also experience=20 their vocabulary words in a variety of contexts via a read-and-respond=20 activity. As part of each unit, students read several short, = informational=20 articles written about topics of general interest. Although occasionally = the=20 articles include one or more of the course vocabulary words, this is not = a=20 factor we use in their selection. Instead, we pick articles we feel lend = themselves to application of the words, meanings, and concepts that the = students=20 are learning. To facilitate application, we write a set of questions = that=20 incorporate the vocabulary words and provide these to accompany each=20 article.
Before = students read the=20 text, teachers choose which question or questions they want students to = answer,=20 and whether answers will be given orally or in writing. Teachers also = preview=20 with students any information they might already know or need to know = about the=20 topic of the article (e.g., =93What do pyramids look like?=94) and any = key words=20 (e.g., pharaoh, graduated).
Still = another way=20 teachers provide students with different contexts in which to think = about their=20 vocabulary words is through a read-aloud activity. Reading aloud is done = frequently with young children; however, older students=92 vocabularies = have also=20 been shown to benefit from listening (Stahl, 1999). Each of our units = contains=20 two stories that can be read aloud by the students or by teachers. As in = the=20 case of the read-and-respond activity, a question accompanying each = story helps=20 focus students=92 attention during reading and enhances their = understanding of how=20 the story relates to their vocabulary words. For example, for a = read-aloud of=20 =93Jason and the Golden Fleece=94 (Russell,=20 1989), the teacher might say, =93As you listen to the third and = final portion=20 of the story, think about what part of this whole saga most = astounds=20 you.=94
Provide multiple=20 opportunities to learn and to expand on meanings. Virtually = every=20 discussion of effective vocabulary instruction emphasizes the importance = of=20 providing students with multiple, meaningful encounters with word = meanings (see,=20 e.g., = Allen,=20 1999; Marzano,=20 Pickering, & Pollock, 2001). We have found two activities = especially=20 beneficial in providing these kinds of encounters.
We modeled = the Yes/No/Why=20 activity after one designed by B= eck,=20 Perfetti, and McKeown (1982). Questions are constructed by pairing = the words=20 in the unit, and students are asked to answer each question as well as = to=20 provide a reason for their answer. There are no right or wrong answers, = and=20 teachers provide a model for students of how to give support for their = answers.=20 By encouraging students to make their thinking explicit, additional=20 relationships among the words and concepts can be discovered and=20 discussed.
The second = and by far=20 the most challenging among the word activities is the Analogies=20 task. One reason for this is that the analogies are open ended, with = more than=20 one correct answer. Another reason, though, is that many of the students = are=20 unfamiliar with the =93rules=94 of analogical reasoning.
Teachers = begin with a=20 discussion of the many ways in which words can be related (e.g., = synonyms,=20 antonyms, cause-effect, category-example, part-whole, object-use, etc.). = Once=20 students are familiar with the different kinds of word relationships, = the=20 teacher models the process of identifying the relationships between the = first=20 two words in each analogy. Then, he or she leads the class in a = discussion of=20 words that would complete the second half of the analogy.
Because we = use an=20 open-ended format -- encouraging as many =93correct=94 answers as = possible -- the=20 analogy activity is a powerful tool for increasing vocabulary=20 learning.
Promote active and=20 generative processing. Writing is one of the primary ways in = which=20 students are encouraged to process word meanings in an active and = generative=20 way. Each week, teachers assign at least one topic for students to write = about,=20 using at least 5 of the vocabulary words for the unit, along with any = words from=20 previous weeks they can incorporate.
In the case = of our=20 sample unit, one of the writing assignments asks students to =93describe = what you=20 would hear, feel, see, and taste if you were sitting on an ocean beach = in the=20 middle of the day.=94 Following are some examples of student = responses.
If I was = to go to the=20 beach right now I would be astounded. It would be a = spectacular=20 day. I would see the ocean shimmer. It would be = appealing. When=20 I got there I would move to a remote place and not be near = anyone. The=20 waves would be crashing persistently. I would feel the sun = burning on=20 my sensitive skin. (Rick)
Quietly = sitting on the=20 shimmering sand of a beach, in a remote location, a = soft, cool,=20 salty wave taunts my fiery extremities with its breath. The=20 vital air extinguishes the extensive heat of the = high=20 sun, which subtly burns the skin on my arm. (Mike)
I would = feel=20 astounded sitting on the beach wall watching a = spectacular=20 sunset. I would make sure my beach would be on a remote island. = If I=20 constantly live on the beach and ate healthy my life would be full of=20 longevity. I would live in a confined home so no one = would=20 taunt me. But my dream would be extinguished when the = alarm=20 clock would go off. (John)
It would = be a very=20 spectacular moment if I could be in the middle of the ocean. = The view=20 would be so astounding my heart would stop. The waves splashing = persistently and the wind howling voices into my ears. Howling = a song=20 so soft and sweet. Telling me to relax and that it is vital for = me to=20 relax or my longevity will go down. The wind song told me to go = to a=20 remote place to chill out sometimes or I will go crazy. As the = wind=20 kept singing the water would splash a light mist on my face that would = evaporate instantly. The water soaking into my skin going = through my=20 blood stream. Making me feel happy inside. It extinguished the = fire=20 inside me and I no longer had the determination to taunt = or make=20 fun of anyone. Then the incredible experience would be over and I = wouldn=92t be=20 able to explain this elusive experience. = (Jacob)
Another of = the writing=20 assignments for each unit asks students to discuss whether they agree or = disagree with a quotation. For this sample unit, the quotation comes = from Thomas=20 Edision: =93Many of life=92s failures are people who did not realize how = close they=20 were to success when they gave up.=94 Students responded as = follows:
Although = this quote=20 seems to make sense, there are many reasons why I disagree with it. = Many=20 people might be striving for a goal and they did not want to finish it = for=20 some reason. Many people have spectacular goals but people just = got rid=20 of them like kitchen fires with fire extinguishers. Many goals = were=20 diminished because of boredom. People do not want to do it any = more or=20 they detract from their goal because of something important = like a=20 baby. They might be so astounded by the baby they don=92t want = to go back=20 to the goal. Other people might regret giving up a goal they = have been=20 working on. People have to make decisions that are vital to = their=20 happiness. They might have to move to a remote environment to = forget=20 about their goals. Other people might throw their goals away because = someone=20 likes to taunt them about their dream. Even if you don=92t = achieve your=20 goal it will always be confined in your head. (Rick)
For = someone to become=20 a successful person is a spectacular and elusive thing = because=20 no one can foresee his future or know his destiny. = Working hard=20 to reach something will never turn against you. I disagree with the = statement=20 that says life failures were close to success or triumph. = People know=20 when they are close to success. That=92s why they persist to = reach the=20 vital goal to astound themselves and the world too.=20 (Ari)
In = responding to=20 students=92 writing, teachers use a two-part evaluation=20 sheet. The first part lists criteria that students are instructed to = apply=20 to their writing before submitting their assignment. The second part = contains a=20 four-point holistic scoring guide that teachers use to communicate their = assessment of how well students have met the criteria.
Although = students find=20 it difficult at first to do the writing assignments, most are able to = see=20 progress fairly quickly. Linda=92s writing is typical of the pattern of = growth we=20 observe:
A person = who I think=20 is unique is my little sister. Her name is Holly. She has made = it=20 through Worthington to 6th grade. She loves to draw and dance. It=92s = not fair=20 because she is very good at singing. Holly doesn=92t like soccer that = much but=20 she is still playing. She plays on a rec team. I love my little = sister. I know=20 she is going to be pretty when she grows up. My little sister still = plays with=20 dolls but she is cute so it=92s ok. She is one of the youngest in her = class and=20 one of the smallest too. I think she has ADD but she is still in = Worthington=20 so I=92m proud of her. (Unit 1)
Yes, I = believe that=20 =93continuous effort is the key to unlocking our potential.=94 If you = are=20 judicious with the decisions you make then you may be able to = unlock=20 that potential faster. It might be very hectic to keep = on trying=20 and not give up, but it=92s all for the best. If you aren=92t used to = working a=20 lot then you will have to adapt which might take awhile. You = will need=20 to resolve on what you like the most so you can work on it = more. You=20 will feel very triumphant when you accomplish your = resolution.=20 People might just start to envy you later. The more you = ponder=20 the more ideas you will get. But don=92t make this an obsession = because=20 you don=92t want it to take over your life. You might even find = something=20 mysterious. So be determined and don=92t give up. (Unit=20 7)
This = summer and=20 through this year things have happened that have made me more aware of = my=20 life. Two of my best friends met their demise this summer in a = car=20 accident around the time I was getting my license. I was so = devastated=20 by their deaths that it diminished my desire to drive anymore. = There=20 have been 5 more gruesome accidents this year that make me=20 sensitive to driving conservatively. Kids need to make = sure that=20 they do not exceed the speed limit and always wear their seat = belts.=20 There can be traumatic consequences when you don=92t obey the = driving=20 laws. When I drive I am very careful. I can=92t see how my dad is so=20 tranquil when I=92m driving. (Unit 12)
In her first = writing=20 assignment, when asked to describe a unique person, Linda used simple = sentence=20 structure and produced a piece with minimal cohesion. By the midpoint of = the=20 course, when asked to agree or disagree with a quote, she used more = complex=20 sentences, and she was able to include several of the vocabulary words. = She also=20 used more transition words, which improved the coherence of her text, = although=20 her overall organization was still weak. Toward the end of the course, = in a=20 reflection, she began to show some comfort in using the vocabulary to = make the=20 transition from =93sentences of thought=94 to =93passages of thought=94 = (Shaughnessy,=20 1977).
Writing is = an invaluable=20 tool for providing students with opportunities to improve their = expressive=20 vocabulary. What teachers using our intervention find most challenging = about it,=20 though, is the minimal emphasis that our instruction places on writing = itself.=20 However, when teachers see that even the most reluctant writers can be = motivated=20 if focus remains on vocabulary use, they become more comfortable with = using=20 writing without providing explicit writing instruction.
Also helping = to ease=20 teachers=92 concerns about the need to work on writing is an activity = called Improving=20 Sentences. Ten sentences containing incorrect usage of vocabulary = words --=20 patterned after the kinds of errors we had observed students make during = vocabulary acquisition -- are part of each unit. Teachers and students = examine=20 each of the sentences and discuss ways in which to revise and improve=20 them.
Games are = still another=20 way in which teachers provide students with opportunities to use their = words in=20 active and generative ways. Board games such as Taboo, Password, = Jeopardy, and=20 Scattergories were customized with the course vocabulary words. Teachers = design=20 their own games as well, with one of the students=92 favorites becoming = known as=20 The=20 Conversation Game.
Provide ongoing=20 assessment and communication about progress. From our experience = in=20 teaching students with reading and related learning difficulties, we = knew the=20 benefits of helping them see their progress on a frequent and regular = basis. We=20 therefore incorporated several curriculum-based and standardized test=20 measurements into the course to serve that purpose.
Students = take=20 multiple-choice pre- and post-tests for each unit in the vocabulary=20 intervention. For the pre= test,=20 teachers explain that the purpose is to establish what students already = know and=20 what they need to learn about the meanings of the words in the unit. = Students=20 complete the test on their own, without assistance. Pretest scores are = then used=20 by the teacher and students to make decisions about the instructional = goals and=20 activities for the unit: Low pretest scores indicate the need to focus = on=20 instruction designed to increase students=92 Stage 3 knowledge of the = words; high=20 pretest scores indicate that emphasis should be placed on moving the = words from=20 Stage 3 to Stage 4.
In our = experience,=20 students=92 average scores on the weekly pretest range from 30 to 60 = percent=20 correct. When students have low pretest scores (i.e., many words below = Stage 3),=20 teachers place particular emphasis on improving their performance on = tasks=20 designed to expand knowledge of word meanings (e.g., completion = activity, the=20 sentence and paragraph clozes, and read and respond). When students have = high=20 pretest scores (i.e., many words at Stage 3 and above), teachers focus = on tasks=20 that emphasize word relationships (e.g., Yes/No/Why and analogies) and = precision=20 in word use (e.g., writing).
At the end = of each unit,=20 students take a multiple-choice post-test=20 that includes as many as five words from past weeks, for review and to=20 facilitate generalization.
Grading in = the course is=20 based on students=92 achievement in five areas: analysis of word = relationships,=20 response to readings, use of vocabulary words in speaking, use of = vocabulary=20 words in writing, and recognition of word meanings. A Unit=20 Grade Report is used for the purposes of grading.
Whenever = possible,=20 teachers meet individually with students at the end of each unit, making = time=20 for the conferences by assigning independent reading or read-alouds. = During the=20 conferences, students are told how they are doing in all of the areas = that=20 affect their grade, and they are asked to identify the area in which = they will=20 seek to improve their performance on the next unit. Of particular = importance is=20 helping students understand that their grade on the post-test is only = one aspect=20 of their performance in the course. Being able to deal with words in = listening,=20 speaking, reading, and writing are all of equal significance in = demonstrating=20 vocabulary growth.
Two = curriculum-based=20 measures are also administered at the beginning and end of the course. = One is a=20 production task in which students write sentences using 15 of the words = whose=20 meanings are taught in the course. Students=92 responses are scored = using a Sentence-Production=20 Scoring Guide that describes how accurately their sentences convey = the=20 words=92 meanings. This is useful for estimating the extent of = students=92 Stage 4=20 knowledge of words. Before the course begins, students typically earn = about 40=20 percent of the total points possible on the sentence-production task. By = the end=20 of the course, the mean percentage often rises to 75 percent.
The second=20 curriculum-based measure administered pre- and post-intervention is a=20 recognition task consisting of multiple-choice items designed to assess=20 knowledge of 40 of the course vocabulary words. This is useful for = estimating=20 the extent of students=92 Stage 3 word knowledge. On average, students = score about=20 60 percent correct on the pretest and 90 percent on the = post-test.
In terms of = standardized=20 tests, the vocabulary and comprehension subtests from the Stanford = Diagnostic=20 Reading Test (= Karlsen=20 & Gardner, 1995) are administered pre- and post-intervention. = Data from=20 39 replications (with an average of 26 students in each) indicate an = average=20 gain in reading achievement of about one grade level for the 16-week = course=20 (from 6.2 to 7.1 on the vocabulary subtest and from 5.7 to 6.7 on the=20 comprehension subtest).
Summary and=20 Conclusions
The = instructional=20 activities described in this article would be appropriate for promoting=20 vocabulary learning in any classroom -- whether via the sort of = =93stand-alone=94=20 units we designed, or through instruction integrated into a content = area.=20 Success in using the activities depends on following some general = guidelines,=20 however. These include introducing and activating word meanings, = presenting=20 words in a variety of contexts, providing multiple opportunities to = learn words=20 in active and generative ways, and providing ongoing = assessment.
One area = that should=20 warrant careful consideration when doing intensive vocabulary = instruction is=20 word selection. In choosing words, the number needs to be limited to = allow for=20 frequent and varied experiences with the words. We have found that a set = of ten=20 words at a time works well. Only words that have =93high utility=94 = should be=20 selected -- that is, words that students will be likely to encounter = again and=20 again after they have been taught. It is also important to choose words = that can=20 be applied in many different contexts and content areas (e.g., = persistent,=20 vital).
Words = selected for=20 instruction do not need to be limited to those that appear in = students=92 reading=20 materials. As our results demonstrate, all that is required is that word = meanings can be related to what students are reading, and that students = receive=20 some guidance in their application of those meanings.
Another area = for=20 teachers to consider is the kinds of vocabulary assessment to use. The = sample=20 instruments described in this article can be administered at regular = intervals=20 throughout a school year (weekly, monthly, at the end of a semester), or = incorporated into existing forms of assessment. Teachers and students = may even=20 want to make these decisions together. This would provide opportunity to = discuss=20 the goals of instruction as well as the purposes of a particular = assessment. The=20 most valuable kinds of assessment, of course, are those that help both = students=20 and teachers. Students benefit from consistent feedback about their = progress=20 since it allows them to set goals and to maintain motivation. Teachers = benefit=20 from knowing what is working so that class time can be spent on tasks = that=20 appropriately challenge students.
Many = adolescents with=20 reading difficulties find themselves facing the same dilemma as the = students at=20 Girls and Boys Town with whom we worked on this project. Their deficits = in=20 vocabulary knowledge cause them comprehension problems, and their = comprehension=20 problems prevent them from improving their vocabulary knowledge on their = own.=20 Intensive vocabulary instruction can be effective in turning this = situation=20 around. What is required, though, is a clear and deliberate focus on=20 facilitating students=92 creation of meaningful contexts for the word = meanings=20 they are learning, and a frequent and consistent emphasis on helping = them make=20 connections to what they already know.
References
Allen, J. =
(1999).=20
Words, words, words: Teaching vocabulary in grades 4-12. York, =
ME:=20
Stenhouse.
Ba=
ck
Beck, I.L., =
McKeown,=20
M.G., & Omanson, R.C. (1987). The effects and uses of diverse =
vocabulary=20
instructional techniques. In M.G. McKeown & M.E. Curtis (Eds.), =
The=20
nature of vocabulary acquisition (pp. 147-163). Hillsdale, NJ:=20
Erlbaum.
Back=
Beck, I.L., =
Perfetti,=20
C.A., & McKeown, M.G. (1982). Effects of long-term vocabulary =
instruction on=20
lexical access and reading comprehension. Journal of Educational =
Psychology,=20
74, 506-521.
Ba=
ck
Biemiller, =
A. (1999).=20
Language and reading success. Cambridge, MA: Brookline.
Back
Chall, J.S. =
(1983).=20
Stages of reading development. New York: Harcourt Brace.
Back
Curtis, =
M.E., &=20
Longo, A.M. (1997). FAME: The Boys Town reading curriculum. Boys =
Town,=20
NE: Father Flanagan=92s Boys=92 Home.
Back
Curtis, =
M.E., &=20
Longo, A.M. (1999). When adolescents can=92t read: Methods and =
materials that=20
work. Cambridge, MA: Brookline.
Back=
Dale, E. =
(1965).=20
Vocabulary measurement: Techniques and major findings. Elementary =
English,=20
42, 895-901, 948.
Ba=
ck
Dale, E., =
&=20
O=92Rourke, J. (1981). The living word vocabulary. Chicago: World =
Book/Childcraft International.
Bac=
k
Davis, F. =
(1944).=20
Fundamental factors of comprehension in reading. Psychometrika, =
9,=20
185-197.
Back
Karlsen, B., =
&=20
Gardner, E.F. (1995). Stanford diagnostic reading test (4th ed.). =
San=20
Antonio, TX: Harcourt Brace.
=
Back
Marzano, =
R.J.,=20
Pickering, D.J., & Pollock, J.E. (2001). Classroom instruction =
that=20
works: Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. =
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. =
Sample=20
text available: www.ascd.org/readingroom/books/101010.html
Ba=
ck
Russell, =
W.F. (1989).=20
Classic myths to read aloud. New York: Three Rivers.
Ba=
ck
Shaughnessy, =
M.P.=20
(1977). Errors and expectations: A guide for the teacher of basic=20
writing. New York: Oxford University Press.
B=
ack
Stahl, S.A. =
(1999).=20
Vocabulary development. Cambridge, MA: Brookline.
Bac=
k
Sternberg, =
R.J. (1987).=20
Most vocabulary is learned from context. In M.G. McKeown & M.E. =
Curtis=20
(Eds.), The nature of vocabulary acquisition (pp. 89-105). =
Hillsdale, NJ:=20
Erlbaum.
Back=
Thorndike, =
E.L. (1917).=20
Reading as reasoning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 8,=20
323-332.
Back
Zeno, S.M., =
Ivens, S.H.,=20
Millard, R.T., Duvvuri, R. (1995). The educator=92s word frequency =
guide.=20
Brewster, NY: Touchstone Applied Science Associates.
Bac=
k
About the = Authors
Mary E. = Curtis is a=20 professor of education and director of the Center for Special Education = at=20 Lesley University (24 Mellen Street, Cambridge, MA 02138-2790, USA; = e-mail mcurtis@mail.lesley.edu). = Ann Marie=20 Longo is an associate professor of education at Goucher College (1021 = Dulaney=20 Valley Road, Baltimore, MD 21204, USA; e-mail alongo@goucher.edu). Prior to = their current=20 positions, Mary Beth and Ann Marie each served as director of the Boys = Town=20 Reading Center.
To print = this article,=20 point and click your mouse anywhere on the article=92s text; then use = your=20 browser=92s print command.
Citation: Curtis,=20 M.E., & Longo, A.M. (2001, November). Teaching vocabulary to = adolescents to=20 improve comprehension. Reading Online, 5(4). Available:=20 http://www.readingonline.org/articles/art_index.asp?HREF=3Dcurtis/index.h= tml
Reading =
Online,=20
www.readingonline.org
Posted November 2001
=A9 2001 International =
Reading=20
Association, Inc. ISSN 1096-1232 =